Introduction to Linguistics

Essays

Here is an example of what I consider a good essay (Task: Comment on the utterance "It don't come easy" from a linguistic point of view): it is short, well structured and coherent, and the writer takes a large number of points into consideration. Although it is not a perfect essay - a few points are not discussed, the final part is not very specific, and the whole essay is not very critical - it is an excellent piece of work for a beginner because of its clarity and its conciseness.

From a linguistic point of view, the sentence "It don't come easy" is grammatically incorrect. First of all, it is a grammatical rule that the third person singular of a conjugated verb takes on -s. Therefore, you must say "it doesn't" instead of "it don't". Secondly, the word "easy" is used incorrectly. As it refers to the verb "do not come", the adverb must follow instead of the adjective. Usually adverbs of manner are formed by adding -ly to the adjective and, therefore, you must say "easily" and not "easy". The correct version of the whole sentence would be "It doesn't come easily".

But as the sentence "It don't come easy" is considered to be the utterance of a native speaker, it is difficult to say that it is completely incorrect, for that would imply the assertion that a native speaker does not know how to use his own language correctly.

Besides the information that it is a native speaker's utterance you should also take into consideration other aspects such as the circumstances in which he made that utterance, whether it was an informal or a formal conversation and what was the relationship between the people who took part in that conversation and whether the speaker was young or old. All these aspects influence the way something is said. The sentence under discussion is likely to be an example of informal spoken English.

Here is an example of what I consider a poor essay ("Language and machines" The Study of Language, discussion topic E). It is rambling, and the student does not really adduce any specific arguments, and the language is not always accurate.

I think, on the one hand this point of view is correct. We won't have any relationship to a super artificial intelligence - a machine - because they are so artificial. Machines won't get human character, that is the problem. Maybe a machine is able to talk, but just without any feelings or own opinions. That's why communication won't be possible - just in an artificial way. So humans won't be interested to talk to a super artificial intelligence, like chimpanzees are not interested in talking about thinks like the global disarmament. But on the other hand I don't think that machines will be independent in the future. Machines always depent on human beings who developed them. Super artificial intelligence won't exist without any human influence or help. The nature of human-machine interaction won't change very much. I think, interaction is the wrong word. Machines are very useful for human beings to help working and we give them the advices to do something. We are able to use them, but not the other way round. We are going to develop or invent some better machines to make life easier. Maybe one day real interaction between human beings and machines will be possible, I don't know, but we will always have the power about them (I hope).
Linguistically, I would like computers to give right (perfect) translations in every language. I would like them to be able to answer all questions I have and I would like a computer to be like a teacher at home. But in my opinion it won't be possible to create a perfect machine/computer. No human being can be perfect, so how can things created by non-perfect people be perfect?

Below you can find some good words and phrases from students’ essays

... differ significantly
... a large number of plastic shapes
Apart from the mere properties
... seems to be the most promising way
Both approaches use a set
... two crucial disadvantages
Students might wear a uniform ...
... a sign of mutual respect.
... you can also use language explicitly to ...
The major part is ...
If we disregard the gender conflict ...
Another borderline case is ....
... do not laugh or cry on purpose
... use it intentionally in order to ...
... so you can handle these situations.
... is a controversial issue.
... does not meet the requirements.
Another mismatch is the ...
... lack of interest in further communication
This can be taken as a hint that ...
... which refute the theory of ...
Besides, the further development ....
... are encouraged to learn the language
... language used in certain circumstances
That does not necessarily mean ...
... social and emotional deprivation
Whenever her mother opened the door, ...
... a lot more information than is actually in the words
The prerequisite for this ability is ...
A reason for this might be that ...
By contrast, a machine does not ...
... sound different depending on whether it is ...
Speakers tend to omit sound segments
... produce natural sounding speech unless it is ....
Since there are endless possible combinations, ...
... does not resemble any of them
The remaining sets can be divided into ....
Pair two, on closer inspection, is ...
... is an undeniable fact which is ...
... have not come to a conclusion yet.
Three major symbol systems can be distinguished.
Thus there is no need to ...
... roughly the same size as people today
which are not otherwise used in their language
can never find any indications of spoken speech
something you do not do with any purpose but ...
the younger a person is the easier it is
It is also conspicuous that ...
... whereas in English the preposition is ...
... says clearly and unmistakably what ...
... no matter whether we consider the whole complex or ....
... is of course limited to what is measurable.
... of ideas not necessarily connected with ....
We admittedly know what is meant but ...
... to interact more effectively
The "freedom of their hands" was essential for ...
Bearing in mind that adverbs can ...
In my research, I have not encountered any ...
It is very uncommon to add suffixes to ...
To indicate one’s possession there is ...
... indicates the social position of the other person.
But, then again, the interpretation of any kind of behaviour depends ...
As communication requires at least two individuals ...
Did she mislead Lorel because ...?
... can no longer be described as pure instinct
I think we can find other indications of ...
... take my own experience into account.
It is rather a matter of getting used to it
On the contrary, I find it easier to ....
... may even be occasioned by unpleasant classroom surroundings
... did not involve grammar or pronunciation.
It is a matter of some doubt whether ...
... a high number of further coincidences.
... changes its position fundamentally
... and that of a newborn baby are remarkably similar.
High enough to cope with human language
Their efforts are simply amazing.
Certain anatomic prerequisites are missing
... that you attach great importance to fashion.
My assumptions of course are based on ...
... a well-balanced mixture of correction and self-experience.
On the whole, I have not ...
In general, the second principle is ....
... will hardly see any reason for ...
... is somehow related to the one to be acquired
... this is not the case if language is ...
In fact, they are slightly more abstract than ...
There are three basic categories of ...
... are most commonly used for traffic signs.
Neither the triangle shape nor the colour ...
This makes them easily recognisable.
... because it is an intercultural issue.
... has to be taken into consideration.
A notorious problem with a lot of graffiti is ...
... depends on a great deal of specific knowledge.
In a way one might even say that ...
In addition to this, the analysis ...
To my mind, however, these particular sentences ...
... might be relevant in the near future.
... are right to question the role of ...
The dominant visual impression since that time ...
... no big deal to actually learn the language
... one language being inherently harder than another.
Were this the case it would logically follow that ...
And they imagine his particular qualities, ...
This is not done deliberately.
The crucial point is to ...
As a consequence, once the early Neanderthal began to ...
Another common feature is ...
... is of crucial importance.
... is likely to become more complex.
... that the writer tries to convey this message.

Below you can find extracts from students essays all of which contain words and phrases that can be deleted.

We know that the language expressed in speech developed well before [the composing of] written language
[The act of] begging [for money] by stretching out one’s hand ...
[After that you can also recognise that] the prepositions in Japanese are behind the noun.
[To focus on the question if some languages are easier than others I have to say that] I don’t think that the idea of one language being inherently harder than another is supported by linguistic research.
... which contain so-called front vowels in their last syllable, [namely] /e/ and /i/.
... which lead to a totally different [understanding and] interpretation of the text.
In conclusion, all consonants prior to an /s/ [sound have in common that they] are voiceless.
... in [the book] The Study of Language [written] by George Yule.
Clothing plays an important [and leading] role in communication.
Everybody, whether [it’s a] Chinese or [an] American, would certainly understand ...
... you get confused by this double information [in it].
First of all, [it has to be remarked that] breathing is ...
There are three prepositions in [the] Turkish [language] which ...

Below you can find extracts from students’ essays all of which contain mistakes

On the first sight, everyone of these examples seems to be some kind of real communication.
A major disadvantage of this development was that it lead to a narrowing of the birth canal.
A notorious problem with a lot of graffiti is that it’s interpretation depends on a great deal of specific knowledge.
In the first utterance you can see that the Past Tense of go is built wrong.
It can be interpreted as a good example of syntactically correctness and semantically incorrectness.
If I would have the chance to teach chimpanzees how to use language I would try to combine several features from each system.
She even had the impressive capacity of understanding complex structures, what was maybe supported by the fact that food rewards were used to ...
The pronounciation is very similar.
We may take french into account and notice that ...
You do not only look on communicative content, but also on informative content.
Take the example of clothes. Your are half asleep and take something out of the cupboard.
Body-language distinguishes according to the social and cultural differences of the user and the receiver.
Some people are able to use it communicative, like flirting.
You never know wether he is unhappy or wether just something got into his eyes.
In some situations of life the choose is intentionally.
When this would be a correct definition, you would have some problems to categorise things.
There are many possibilities of causing missunderstandings.
I would chose the Sign Language to communicate with chimpanzees.
If you visit a language course you only have few time to learn the most important things.
This discussion topic is in the book "The studie of languge" by George Yule.
It describes the reduction from a word like television to the verb televise.
It’s the invention of a name for something like aspirin and it gets an everyday word.
In this chapter we learn how words are build and where they come from.
Most people I know hate learning languages but they love doing that mathematical stuff.
Any word sounds differently depending on the context.
... have a look at whether birds are able to speek
Of cause it sometimes seems as though the animal would really react on the human language.
If you would also teach it to say water, it would never imagine to combine water and Gimme.
There are many aspects that can proove this thesis.
In this attempts, different symbol systems ... have been used.
... only people being familiar with this symbol systems can use or understand it.
I would also chose sign language for a chimpanzee.
The difference is that communicative language is intentionally and informative language is unintentionally.
They say that when you are lieing your body language does not support what you say.
You usually buy your cloth alone and intentionally.
You can see that Moja not just says a word but also can make a connection to the real dog.
It is impossible for us to say weather the chimpanzees just train these things.
... understanding complex structures, what was maybe supported by the fact that ...
If I would have the chance to teach chimpanzees, I would try to pick up these symbols and ...
The pronounciation is very similar.
In this case it is latin with the words quinque and quattuor.
Although the languages underwent enormous changes during the history, ...
... the creation of specific words which have no origin in the nature.
Washoe was raised like a human child and was teached to use sign language.
The important difference between the human communication and that of animals is ....
The dog only reacts on what is being said.
The expression my brother cannot be described in natural gestures.
In contrast, the other sentence poses much more problems.
... can be described by gestures and primitive grunting because it’s essential characteristics are clearly visible.
There is no similarity in form of the spelling as well as in the most likely pronunciation.
The ending is not pronounced, and instead a vowel is uttered.
... can easily be mistaken for the will-future at the first glance.
If X is breakable, than someone can break X.
On principle, all symbol systems are helpful.
It could mean quite the same at the first look.
Those people use it intentionally in order to deliver a massage.
We know the word smog. It exists of smoke and fog.
It’s the imitation of a name for something, like aspirin, and it gets an everyday word.
... are often created with quickly and unexpectedly intakes of breath
Our genes could develop themselves further.
That means people who wear this uniforms ...
Conspicuous is also that all verbs ...
... not capable of producing such a compound statement because there mind had not grown.
... not to be located at a certain area of the brain.
One could also look at our closest relatives, the apes that have undoubtfully developed some ...
It’s quiet difficult to communicate a message ...
It describes a process that everyone of us is using today.
Because nobody knows how it looks like.
... without really to eat anything
When you aren’t too bad an actor, your presentation will be ....
Much more difficulties will you have by trying to express the verb ...
Everybody understand what is meant by to think
... had to be capable not only to react on the surroundings
Here it is written first the article, then the adjective.
He then expect to receive a respond on his clothing
Does anybody wants to marry me?
... or clearify the step-by-step development.
Throughout evolution our body undertook changes which ....
As the development of our ancestor show ...
The thesis in other words can be seen like this:
At my german school and at a school in Italy.
She was incapable of enrousing our interest.
May be unwilling or embaressed
From an evolutional point of view , ...
The structure of our brain is singularly in the real of animals.
Speech is a partial overlaid function.
It would be impossible to distinguish them if no one would use unintentional gestures.
All this aspects that are responsible ...
A hungry baby will always starts to cry when ...
According to this topic I’m going to occupy with ...
The front limps of our brain are not ...
... already spoke about significantly anatomic similarities
... which implicates that the human race has ...
... the communication system of the deaf and the dump.
On the other hand there are the skinheads, which are orientated towards the right.
If the words have just one syllable or a diphtong, ...
But about this words?
It is also possible to combine adjectives and adverbs. Examples therefore are:
My teachers [at school] haven’t always used the target language.
By this way, you can learn ....
I agree with this when you add that the environment ...
But all this situations have one thing in common.
Twenty-nine unmotivated thirteen-year-olds who should learn a new language
At the end, it shouldn’t be forgot to mention ...
On the picture we do not only see the ...
On the top of the picture ...
The car that drives on the left sight ...
Every society has it’s own view of beeing polite.
... discuss the topic of ‘politeness’, what is just another example of ...
They were not used to it and felt themselves persecuted.
The older generations still sticks to it.
... that it’s interpretation is quite difficult.
The painter wants to comment on this plans.
Uses a verb and a subject in this questions.
The child has now the capability to built sentences properly.
If that were the sentences I was talking about, ...
That definition may sound a bit casually.
Dedicate a large amount of time on that subject.
... cannot be considered either communicative nor informative.
Nodding the head is a sort of body language.
It may be interpret as a sign which ...
It is neccessary to use it in daily life.
... not in school-time but in the childhood.
What we not exactly know is if ...
The meaning of the text is not only in the text himself.
The next teacher payed a lot of attention to ...
You can’t learn anything if you only now the grammar.
... due to the fact that the words just doesn’t sound alike.
During the communication persons also ...
Someone can smile friendly or nod to greet a person.
But this special gestures are not really important ...
... is uncorrect from the point of view of linguistics.
The people who speaks this language ...
As I already noticed in the last paragraph, ...
Different cultures also uses different gestures.
The Past Tense is also devided into ...
... depending on it’s position in the sentence.
If the pronoun you is in the first position than it is <u>, but when the pronoun is in the second position ...
If I would have known the product they bought and the exact price ...
Finish the work quick.
Everyone can guess what the child is actually meaning.
Begging by stretching out the hand ...
... when the meal he or she is eating tastes very badly.
... can be found in certain relationships (f. ex.: families)
What we not exactly know is if he is guilty
Also comparable is that in all cases ...

Below you can find extracts from students’ essays all of which contain logical fallacies.

But I do not think you can describe this as real language. Language also consists of its spoken form, and none of these chimps was ever able to use them.
Children are able to learn more quickly and more easily than adults and they are not so occupied with other things.
Latin is a complicated language concerning its grammar, You can hardly find anyone who speaks it fluently.
Sign language is acceptable to teach animals. The other two systems of using symbols or the computer keyboard are unacceptable for me because they don’t respect the animals in the way they deserve.
Chimpanzees do not understand the meaning of the sentences they produce by putting the symbols in the right sequence.
The French kiss each other to show that they are glad to see each other. Germans are in general a little bit more reserved and prefer a handshake or even a hug in such cases.
In my opinion, the relationship between human beings and dogs are only intimate because they both profit from the other: the human needs the social contact with the dog and, in return for this, the human gives the dog what he needs to survive: food.
In contrast to human beings, animals don’t need social conversation to survive, they are able to survive in a bare windowless cell without any social contact, a human being would die in such a surrounding.
Animals only need food to survive and that is the reason why they only learned to say sentences like more drink. They have no reason to talk about the weather. Every creature has only the abilities he needs to survive: humans are able to talk, birds can fly and fish have to look for their food in water, so they can swim.
One could express this [i.e. the word dog in the sentence The dog is eating a chicken] by imitating a dog (if necessary one could even bark to make clear what animal one refers to).
The method [sign language] makes it easier to compare the learning abilities of chimpanzees and children. A further advantage is that it supports a direct conversation between animals and teacher without using mediums like plastic shapes. Because of this, the chimpanzees are more encouraged to learn.
In my opinion, teaching the animals sign language would be the best approach [in comparison to plastic shapes and computer keys]. It has all the basic features of human language and it would enable the animals to really learn a human language of everyday use.
The problem [with the foreign language] was not producing sentences in a correct grammatical order, but grammar itself.
It is clear that a little girl being 11 years old is too shy to speak in a foreign language in front of twenty-nine other children.
If you drum on the table with your fingers somebody will recognise that you are bored.
A disadvantage of using the target language is that it doesn’t work at the beginning. Nobody would understand the instructor in the first lessons.
If you want to get a discussion going it is useful not to correct every mistake. In this way, you can learn how to express yourself in the foreign language.
In my opinion, there has to be some basic knowledge of the language, essential vocabulary and grammar and the ability to pronounce the words correctly, before you can begin to use the target language.
A person who is not interested in other people, countries or cultures will hardly see any reason for investing a great deal of time in things like reading books and watching TV in the foreign language.
Everyone can guess what the child means, but the child formulates the question ("Where momma boot?") without any syntax.
Before you start trying to speak a foreign language spend some time tuning your ears to its sounds and rhythms. You can do this by listening to the language as much as possible via the radio, TV, movies, etc. You’ll be able to really understand and memorize it then.